Diffraction Gratings Tutorial

• Introduction
• Transmission Gratings
• Reflective Gratings
• Blazed (Ruled) Gratings
• Littrow Configuration for Reflective Gratings
• Volume Phase Holographic Transmission Gratings
• Holographic Reflective Gratings

Introduction

Diffraction gratings, either transmissive or reflective, can separate different wavelengths of light using a repetitive structure embedded within the grating. The structure affects the amplitude and/or phase of the incident wave, causing interference in the output wave. In the transmissive case, the repetitive structure can be thought of as many tightly spaced, thin slits. Solving for the irradiance as a function wavelength and position of this multi-slit situation, we get a general expression that can be applied to all diffractive gratings when = 0°,

(1)

known as the grating equation. The equation states that a diffraction grating with spacing will deflect light at discrete angles (), dependent upon the value λ, where is the order of principal maxima. The diffracted angle, , is the output angle as measured from the surface normal of the diffraction grating. It is easily observed from Eq. 1 that for a given order , different wavelengths of light will exit the grating at different angles. For white light sources, this corresponds to a continuous, angle-dependent spectrum.

Figure 1. Transmission Grating

Transmission Gratings

One popular style of grating is the transmission grating. The sample diffraction grating with surfaces grooves shown in Figure 1 is created by scratching or etching a transparent substrate with a repetitive series of narrow-width grooves separated by distance . This creates areas where light can scatter.

The incident light impinges on the grating at an angle , as measured from the surface normal. The light of order exiting the grating leaves at an angle of , relative to the surface normal. Utilizing some geometric conversions and the general grating expression (Eq. 1) an expression for the transmissive diffraction grating can be found:

(2)

where both and are positive if the incident and diffracted beams are on opposite sides of the grating surface normal, as illustrated in the example in Figure 1. If they are on the same side of the grating normal, must then be considered negative.

Figure 2. Reflective Grating

Reflective Gratings

Another very common diffractive optic is the reflective grating. A reflective grating is traditionally made by depositing a metallic coating on an optic and ruling parallel grooves in the surface. Reflective gratings can also be made of epoxy and/or plastic imprints from a master copy. In all cases, light is reflected off of the ruled surface at different angles corresponding to different orders and wavelengths. An example of a reflective grating is shown in Figure 2. Using a similar geometric setup as above, the grating equation for reflective gratings can be found:

(3)

where is positive and is negative if the incident and diffracted beams are on opposite sides of the grating surface normal, as illustrated in the example in Figure 2. If the beams are on the same side of the grating normal, then both angles are considered positive.

Both the reflective and transmission gratings suffer from the fact that the zeroth order mode contains no diffraction pattern and appears as a surface reflection or transmission, respectively. Solving Eq. 2 for this condition, = , we find the only solution to be =0, independent of wavelength or diffraction grating spacing. At this condition, no wavelength-dependent information can be obtained, and all the light is lost to surface reflection or transmission.

This issue can be resolved by creating a repeating surface pattern, which produces a different surface reflection geometry. Diffraction gratings of this type are commonly referred to as blazed (or ruled) gratings. More information about this can be found in the section below.

Blazed (Ruled) Gratings

Figure 4. Blazed Grating, 0^th Order Reflection

Figure 3. Blazed Grating Geometry

The blazed grating, also known as the echelette grating, is a specific form of reflective or transmission diffraction grating designed to produce the maximum grating efficiency in a specific diffraction order. This means that the majority of the optical power will be in the designed diffraction order while minimizing power lost to other orders (particularly the zeroth). Due to this design, a blazed grating operates at a specific wavelength, known as the blaze wavelength.

The blaze wavelength is one of the three main characteristics of the blazed grating. The other two, shown in Figure 3, are , the groove or facet spacing, and , the blaze angle. The blaze angle is the angle between the surface structure and the surface parallel. It is also the angle between the surface normal and the facet normal.

The blazed grating features geometries similar to the transmission and reflection gratings discussed thus far; the incident angle () and ^th order reflection angles () are determined from the surface normal of the grating. However, the significant difference is the specular reflection geometry is dependent on the blaze angle, , and NOT the grating surface normal. This results in the ability to change the diffraction efficiency by only changing the blaze angle of the diffraction grating.

The 0^th order reflection from a blazed grating is shown in Figure 4. The incident light at angle is reflected at for = 0. From Eq. 3, the only solution is = –. This is analogous to specular reflection from a flat surface.

Figure 6. Blazed Grating, Incident Light Normal to Grating Surface

Figure 5. Blazed Grating, Specular Reflection from Facet

The specular reflection from the blazed grating is different from the flat surface due to the surface structure, as shown in Figure 5. The specular reflection, , from a blazed grating occurs at the blaze angle geometry. This angle is defined as being negative if it is on the same side of the grating surface normal as . Performing some simple geometric conversions, one finds that

(4)

Figure 6 illustrates the specific case where = 0°, hence the incident light beam is perpendicular to the grating surface. In this case, the 0^th order reflection also lies at 0°. Utilizing Eqs. 3 and 4, we can find the grating equation at twice the blaze angle:

(5)

Littrow Configuration for Reflective Gratings

The Littrow configuration refers to a specific geometry for blazed gratings and plays an important role in monochromators and spectrometers. It is the angle at which the grating efficiency is the highest. In this configuration, the angle of incidence of the incoming and diffracted light are the same, = , and > 0 so

(6)

Figure 7. Littrow Configuration

The Littrow configuration angle, , is dependent on the most intense order ( = 1), the design wavelength, , and the grating spacing . It is easily shown that the Littrow configuration angle, , is equal to the blaze angle, , at the design wavelength. The Littrow / blaze angles for all Thorlabs' Blazed Gratings can be found in the grating specs tables.

(7)

It is easily observed that the wavelength dependent angular separation increases as the diffracted order increases for light of normal incidence (for = 0°, increases as increases). There are two main drawbacks for using a higher order diffraction pattern over a low order one: (1) a decrease in efficiency at higher orders and (2) a decrease in the free spectral range, , defined as:

(8)

where is the central wavelength, and is the order.

The first issue with using higher order diffraction patterns is solved by using an Echelle grating, which is a special type of ruled diffraction grating with an extremely high blaze angle and relatively low groove density. The high blaze angle is well suited for concentrating the energy in the higher order diffraction modes. The second issue is solved by using another optical element: grating, dispersive prism, or other dispersive optic, to sort the wavelengths/orders after the Echelle grating.

Figure 8. Volume Phase Holographic Grating

Volume Phase Holographic Transmission Gratings

Unlike traditional gratings, volume phase holographic (VPH) gratings do not have surface grooves. Instead, VPH gratings consist of a dichromated gelatin (DCG) film between two glass substrates. These VPH gratings are designed to reduce the periodic errors that can occur in blazed gratings. Surface gratings with high groove density also have an issue with polarization dependent loss. These unique transmission gratings deliver high first-order diffraction peak efficiency, low polarization dependence, and uniform performance over broad bandwidths.

The desired grating pattern is comprised of a repetitive series of lines separated by distance . The fringe planes for transmission gratings are perpendicular to the plane of the plate as seen in Figure 8, allowing any frequency of light to pass through the plate. Diffraction occurs as incoming light crosses through the DCG film. Therefore, the three major factors that determine performance are film thickness, bulk index (the average index of refraction between Bragg planes), and index modulation (the difference of index of refraction between the Bragg planes). The incident light enters the grating at an angle of , as measured from the surface normal. The light of order exiting the grating leaves at an angle of , relative to the surface normal. The grating expression mentioned above can be used to calculate diffraction angles for volume phase holographic gratings since dispersion is based on the line density. The quality of the grating is determined by the fringe contrast, with a poor fringe contrast resulting in low efficiency or no grating at all.

The DCG film is taken through multiple quality control steps to ensure it performs up to standard and then cut into the desired size. The film is sealed between two glass covers to prevent degradation of the material. Since the DCG film is contained between two glass substrates, VPH gratings have high durability and long lifetimes, as well as easy maintenance compared to other gratings that can be easily damaged.

Figure 9. Holographic Grating

Holographic Surface Reflective Gratings

While blazed gratings offer extremely high efficiencies at the design wavelength, they suffer from periodic errors, such as ghosting, and relatively high amounts of scattered light, which could negatively affect sensitive measurements. Holographic gratings are designed specially to reduce or eliminate these errors. The drawback of holographic gratings compared to blazed gratings is reduced efficiency.

Holographic gratings are made from master gratings by similar processes to the ruled grating. The master holographic gratings are typically made by exposing photosensitive material to two interfering laser beams. The interference pattern is exposed in a periodic pattern on the surface, which can then be physically or chemically treated to expose a sinusoidal surface pattern. An example of a holographic grating is shown in Figure 9.

Please note that dispersion is based solely on the number of grooves per mm and not the shape of the grooves. Hence, the same grating equation can be used to calculate angles for holographic as well as ruled blazed gratings.

Transmission Gratings

Thorlabs offers two types of transmission gratings: ruled and volume phase holographic. The ruled transmission gratings are created by scratching or etching a transparent substrate with a repetitive, parallel structure, creating areas where light can scatter. These gratings have a sawtooth diffraction profile and are made of epoxy and/or plastic imprints from a master copy, in a process called replication. Our volume phase holographic diffraction gratings consist of a dichromated gelatin (DCG) film between two glass substrates. These gratings have a sinusoidal wave diffraction pattern written on the DCG film using a laser setup. For more information, please refer to the Gratings Tutorial tab.

Ruled Diffraction Gratings
	UV	Thorlabs' ruled transmission gratings disperse incident light on the opposite side of the grating at a fixed angle. They are ruled and blazed for optimum efficiency in their respective wavelength range, are relatively polarization insensitive, and have an efficiency comparable to that of a reflection grating optimized for the same wavelength. They are ideal for applications that require fixed gratings such as spectrographs.
	Visible
	Near IR

Item #	Dimensions	Grooves/mm	Groove Angle	Efficiency Curves	Substrate Material	Thickness Tolerance
GTU13-03	12.7 mm x 12.7 mm x 2.0 mm	300	8.6°		UVFS	±0.2 mm
GTU13-06	12.7 mm x 12.7 mm x 2.0 mm	600	22°
GTU13-08	12.7 mm x 12.7 mm x 2.0 mm	830	19.4°
GTU13-12	12.7 mm x 12.7 mm x 2.0 mm	1200	36.9°

Item #	Dimensions	Grooves/mm	Groove Angle	Efficiency Curves	Substrate Material	Thickness Tolerance
GT13-03	12.7 mm x 12.7 mm x 3.0 mm	300	17.5°		Schott B270	±0.5 mm
GT25-03	25.0 mm x 25.0 mm x 3.0 mm
GT50-03	50.0 mm x 50.0 mm x 3.0 mm
GT13-06V	12.7 mm x 12.7 mm x 3.0 mm	600	28.7°
GT25-06V	25.0 mm x 25.0 mm x 3.0 mm
GT50-06V	50.0 mm x 50.0 mm x 3.0 mm
GT13-08	12.7 mm x 12.7 mm x 3.0 mm	800	29.87°
GT25-08	25.0 mm x 25.0 mm x 3.0 mm
GT50-08	50.0 mm x 50.0 mm x 3.0 mm
GT13-12	12.7 mm x 12.7 mm x 3.0 mm	1200	36.9°
GT25-12	25.0 mm x 25.0 mm x 3.0 mm
GT50-12	50.0 mm x 50.0 mm x 3.0 mm

NIR Ruled Transmission Blazed Diffraction Gratings

Item #	Dimensions	Grooves/mm	Groove Angle	Efficiency Curves	Substrate Material	Thickness Tolerance
GTI25-03	25.0 mm x 25.0 mm x 3.0 mm	300	24.8°		Schott B270	±0.5 mm
GTI50-03	50.0 mm x 50.0 mm x 3.0 mm
GTI25-03A	25.0 mm x 25.0 mm x 3.0 mm		31.7°
GTI50-03A	50.0 mm x 50.0 mm x 3.0 mm

Volume Phase Holographic Diffraction Gratings
	Volume Phase Holographic		Thorlabs' volume phase holographic gratings consist of a DCG film between two glass substrates. These unique transmission gratings are easy to maintain and deliver high first-order diffraction peak efficiency, low polarization dependence, and uniform performance over broad bandwidths.

Volume Phase Holographic Transmission Gratings

Item #	Dimensions	Lines/mm	Design Wavelength	Operating Bandwidth	AOI	Dispersion	Efficiency Curves	Bragg Sensitivity	Material
GP3508U	50.0 mm x 30.0 mm x 6.0 mm	800	1300 nm	1230 - 1370 nm	31°				DCG Film Between Two N-BK7 Glass Plates
GP3509N		900	930 nm	892 - 968 nm	25°
GP3510M		1000	900 nm	800 - 1000 nm	27°
GP3512N		1200	930 nm	885 - 975 nm	34°
GP3515N		1500	930 nm	899 - 961 nm	44°

Reflective Gratings

Reflective grating master copies are made by depositing a metallic coating on an optic and ruling parallel grooves in the surface. Thorlabs' reflective gratings are made of epoxy and/or plastic imprints from a master copy, in a process called replication. In all cases, light is reflected off of the ruled surface at different angles corresponding to different orders and wavelengths. All of Thorlabs' ruled reflective diffraction gratings exhibit a sawtooth profile, also known as blazed, while our reflective holographic diffraction gratings exhibit a sinusoidal profile. For more information, please refer to the Gratings Tutorial tab.

Ruled Diffraction Gratings
	UV	Ruled gratings can achieve higher efficiencies than holographic gratings due to their blaze angles. They are ideal for applications centered near the blaze wavelength. Thorlabs offers replicated ruled diffraction gratings in a variety of sizes and blaze angles.
	Visible
	Near IR
	Mid IR

UV Ruled Reflective Blazed Diffraction Gratings

Item #	Dimensions	Grooves/mm	Blaze Wavelength	Blaze Angle	Dispersion	Efficiency Curves	Max Efficiency	Coating
GR25-0303	25.0 mm x 25.0 mm x 6.0 mm	300	300 nm	2° 34'	33.3 nm/mrad		60% - 80% at Blaze Wavelength	Aluminum
GR50-0603	50.0 mm x 50.0 mm x 9.5 mm	600		5° 9'	1.67 nm/mrad
GR13-1203	12.7 mm x 12.7 mm x 6.0 mm	1200		10° 22'	0.82 nm/mrad

Visible Ruled Reflective Blazed Diffraction Gratings

Item #	Dimensions	Grooves/mm	Blaze Wavelength	Blaze Angle	Dispersion	Efficiency Curves	Max Efficiency	Coating
GR25-1204	25.0 mm x 25.0 mm x 6.0 mm	1200	400 nm	13° 53'	0.81 nm/mrad		60% - 80% at Blaze Wavelength	Aluminum
GR50-1204	50.0 mm x 50.0 mm x 9.5 mm
GR13-0305	12.7 mm x 12.7 mm x 6.0 mm	300	500 nm	4° 18'	3.32 nm/mrad
GR25-0305	25.0 mm x 25.0 mm x 6.0 mm
GR50-0305	50.0 mm x 50.0 mm x 9.5 mm
GR13-0605	12.7 mm x 12.7 mm x 6.0 mm	600		8° 37'	1.65 nm/mrad
GR25-0605	25.0 mm x 25.0 mm x 6.0 mm
GR50-0605	50.0 mm x 50.0 mm x 9.5 mm
GR13-1205	12.7 mm x 12.7 mm x 6.0 mm	1200		17° 27'	0.80 nm/mrad
GR25-1205	25.0 mm x 25.0 mm x 6.0 mm

Near-IR Ruled Reflective Blazed Diffraction Gratings

Item #	Dimensions	Grooves/mm	Blaze Wavelength	Blaze Angle	Dispersion	Efficiency Curves	Max Efficiency	Coating
GR13-0608	12.7 mm x 12.7 mm x 6.0 mm	600	750 nm	13° 0'	1.62 nm/mrad		60% - 80% at Blaze Wavelength	Aluminum
GR25-0608	25.0 mm x 25.0 mm x 6.0 mm
GR50-0608	50.0 mm x 50.0 mm x 9.5 mm
GR13-1208	12.7 mm x 12.7 mm x 6.0 mm	1200		26° 44'	0.74 nm/mrad
GR25-1208	25.0 mm x 25.0 mm x 6.0 mm
GR13-0310	12.7 mm x 12.7 mm x 6.0 mm	300	1 µm	8° 36'	3.30 nm/mrad
GR25-0310	25.0 mm x 25.0 mm x 6.0 mm
GR50-0310	50.0 mm x 50.0 mm x 9.5 mm
GR13-0610	12.7 mm x 12.7 mm x 6.0 mm	600		17° 27'	1.59 nm/mrad
GR25-0610	25.0 mm x 25.0 mm x 6.0 mm
GR50-0610	50.0 mm x 50.0 mm x 9.5 mm
GR13-1210	12.7 mm x 12.7 mm x 6.0 mm	1200		36° 52'	0.67 nm/mrad
GR25-1210	25.0 mm x 25.0 mm x 6.0 mm
GR50-1210	50.0 mm x 50.0 mm x 9.5 mm
GR25-0613	25.0 mm x 25.0 mm x 6.0 mm	600	1.25 µm	22° 1'	1.55 nm/mrad
GR50-0613	50.0 mm x 50.0 mm x 9.5 mm
GR13-0616	12.7 mm x 12.7 mm x 6.0 mm	600	1.6 µm	28° 41'	1.46 nm/mrad
GR25-0616	25.0 mm x 25.0 mm x 6.0 mm
GR50-0616	50.0 mm x 50.0 mm x 9.5 mm

Mid-IR Ruled Reflective Blazed Diffraction Gratings

Item #	Dimensions	Grooves/mm	Design Wavelength	Blaze Angle	Dispersion	Efficiency Curves	Max Efficiency	Coating
GR1325-45031	12.5 mm x 25.0 mm x 9.5 mm	450	3.1 µm	32°	1.6 nm/mrad		80% - 95% at Design Wavelength	Aluminum
GR2550-45031	25.0 mm x 50.0 mm x 9.5 mm
GR1325-30035	12.5 mm x 25.0 mm x 9.5 mm	300	3.5 µm	26.5°	2.86 nm/mrad
GR2550-30035	25.0 mm x 50.0 mm x 9.5 mm
GR1325-07106	12.5 mm x 25.0 mm x 9.5 mm	75	10.6 µm	21°	12.3 nm/mrad
GR2550-07106	25.0 mm x 50.0 mm x 9.5 mm
GR1325-10106	12.5 mm x 25.0 mm x 9.5 mm	100		27°	8.5 nm/mrad
GR2550-10106	25.0 mm x 50.0 mm x 9.5 mm
GR1325-15106	12.5 mm x 25.0 mm x 9.5 mm	150		35°	4.2 nm/mrad
GR2550-15106	25.0 mm x 50.0 mm x 9.5 mm

Holographic Diffraction Gratings
	Holographic		Holographic gratings have a low occurrence of periodic errors, which results in limited ghosting, unlike ruled gratings. The low stray light of these gratings makes them ideal for applications where the signal-to-noise ratio is critical, such as Raman Spectroscopy.

Reflective Holographic Sinusoidal Diffraction Gratings

Item #	Dimensions	Grooves/mm	Design Wavelength	Dispersion @ 250 nm	Efficiency Curves	Max Efficiency
GH13-06U	12.7 mm x 12.7 mm x 6.0 mm	600	-	1.67 nm/mrad		45% - 65%
GH25-06U	25.0 mm x 25.0 mm x 6.0 mm
GH13-12U	12.7 mm x 12.7 mm x 6.0 mm	1200		0.82 nm/mrad
GH25-12U	25.0 mm x 25.0 mm x 6.0 mm
GH13-18U	12.7 mm x 12.7 mm x 6.0 mm	1800		0.54 nm/mrad
GH25-18U	25.0 mm x 25.0 mm x 6.0 mm
GH13-24U	12.7 mm x 12.7 mm x 6.0 mm	2400		0.40 nm/mrad
GH25-24U	25.0 mm x 25.0 mm x 6.0 mm
GH13-36U	12.7 mm x 12.7 mm x 6.0 mm	3600		0.25 nm/mrad
GH25-36U	25.0 mm x 25.0 mm x 6.0 mm
GH13-12V	12.7 mm x 12.7 mm x 6.0 mm	1200		0.79 nm/mrad
GH25-12V	25.0 mm x 25.0 mm x 6.0 mm
GH50-12V	50.0 mm x 50.0 mm x 9.5 mm
GH13-18V	12.7 mm x 12.7 mm x 6.0 mm	1800		0.50 nm/mrad
GH25-18V	25.0 mm x 25.0 mm x 6.0 mm
GH50-18V	50.0 mm x 50.0 mm x 9.5 mm
GH13-24V	12.7 mm x 12.7 mm x 6.0 mm	2400		0.33 nm/mrad
GH25-24V	25.0 mm x 25.0 mm x 6.0 mm
GH50-24V	50.0 mm x 50.0 mm x 9.5 mm

Echelle Diffraction Gratings
	Echelle		Echelle gratings are low period gratings designed for use in high diffraction orders. They are generally used with a second grating or prism to separate overlapping diffracted orders. They are ideal for applications such as high-resolution spectroscopy.

Echelle Ruled Blazed Diffraction Gratings

Item #	Dimensions	Grooves/mm	Blaze Angle	Dispersion	Efficiency Curves	Typical Resolution	Usable Wavelength Range
GE2550-0363	25.0 mm x 50.0 mm x 9.5 mm	31.6	63°	14.7 nm/mrad	-	80% - 90% of Theoretical	UV - 57 µm
GE2550-0863		79.0	63°	5.75 nm/mrad			UV - 23 µm
GE2550-0875		79.0	75°	3.28 nm/mrad			UV - 25 µm
GE2550-3263		316	63°	1.44 nm/mrad			UV - 5.7 µm

Selecting a grating requires consideration of a number of factors, some of which are listed below:

Efficiency:
Ruled gratings generally have a higher efficiency than holographic gratings. Holographic grating tend to have a lower efficiency but a broader effective wavelength range. The efficiency of ruled gratings may be desirable in applications such as fluorescence excitation and other radiation-induced reactions.

Blaze Wavelength:
Ruled gratings have a sawtooth groove profile created by sequentially etching the surface of the grating substrate. As a result, they have a sharp peak efficiency around their blaze wavelength. Holographic gratings are harder to blaze, and tend to have a sinusoidal groove profile resulting in a less intense peak around the design wavelength. Applications centered around a narrow wavelength range could benefit from a ruled grating blazed at that wavelength.

Stray Light:
Due to a difference in how the grooves are made, holographic gratings have less stray light than ruled gratings. The grooves on a ruled grating are machined one at a time which results in a higher frequency of errors. Holographic gratings are made through a lithographic process, which generally creates smoother grating masters free of tool marks. Replicants made from these masters exhibit less stray light. Applications such as Raman spectroscopy, where signal-to-noise is critical, can benefit from the limited stray light of the holographic grating.

Resolving Power:
The resolving power of a grating is a measure of its ability to spatially separate two wavelengths. It is determined by applying the Rayleigh criteria to the diffraction maxima; two wavelengths are resolvable when the maxima of one wavelength coincides with the minima of the second wavelength. The chromatic resolving power (R) is defined by R = λ/Δλ = n*N, where Δλ is the resolvable wavelength difference, n is the diffraction order, and N is the number of grooves illuminated. Due to their low groove density, Echelle gratings provide high resolving power.

Polarization Dependence:
Surface gratings that have high groove densities also have an issue with polarization dependent loss, often with significantly lower efficiency when exposed to parallel- versus perpendicularly-polarized light. Volume phase holographic gratings are designed for applications that require low polarization dependent loss at higher spatial frequencies.

For further information about gratings and selecting the grating right for your application, please visit our Gratings Tutorial.

Caution for Gratings with Surface Grooves:
The surface of a diffraction grating with surface grooves can be easily damaged by fingerprints, aerosols, moisture or the slightest contact with any abrasive material. Gratings should only be handled when necessary and always held by the sides. Latex gloves or a similar protective covering should be worn to prevent oil from fingers from reaching the grating surface. Solvents will likely damage the grating's surface. No attempt should be made to clean a grating other than blowing off dust with clean, dry air or nitrogen. Scratches or other minor cosmetic imperfections on the surface of a grating do not usually affect performance and are not considered defects. Conversely, volume phase holographic gratings can be cleaned using standard optics cleaning procedures and have high durability.